T. Y. Branch & Gloria Origgi (2022). Social Indicators of Trust in the Age of Informational Chaos. Social Epistemology. doi:10.1080/02691728.2022.2121622

Résumé :
Expert knowledge regularly informs personal and civic-decision making. To decide which experts to trust, lay publics —including policymakers and experts from other domains—use different epistemic and non-epistemic cues. Epistemic cues such as honesty, like when experts are forthcoming about conflicts of interest, are a popular way of understanding how people evaluate and decide which experts to trust. However, many other epistemic cues, like the evidence supporting information from experts, are inaccessible to lay publics. Therefore, lay publics simultaneously use second-order social cues in their environment to inform decisions to trust. These second-order social cues, or ‘social indicators of trust’, prevent lay publics from having to trust blindly. Social indicators of trust therefore inform lay publics’ epistemic vigilance, or constant low level-monitoring of testimony from experts. This special issue examines the nature, acquisition and application of social indicators of trust for scientific experts and institutions. It also raises questions about the types of trust asked of lay publics and challenges traditional normative assumptions about the relationship between science and lay publics through study of attitudes, values, and experiences. The issue descriptively re-examines the structure of institutions, their role and methods for ferrying information, as well as how social indicators operate in times of crisis. In this collection of works, we bridge history, science, philosophy of science, science and technology studies, science communication and social epistemology, to broaden the discourse on trust in experts and more accurately reflect the imperfect yet indispensable endeavour that trusting is.

Roberto Casati (2022). Philosophie de l'océan. Collection Sciences dans la cité (PUF). ISBN : 978-2-13-084203-3

Résumé :
La mer est notre ressource pour respirer, pour nous nourrir, mais aussi pour rêver. Elle fait partie de notre environnement tout en constituant un autre monde, aussi effrayant qu’évocateur, un ailleurs radical. Cette altérité permet à Roberto Casati de la repenser dans une perspective inédite, pour comprendre à quel point elle a fait de nous ce que nous sommes et ce que nous sommes appelés à devenir. Traversant l’océan à bord d’un voilier en marin-philosophe, il embarque le lecteur pour un véritable voyage initiatique. Naviguer dans un espace de liberté qui semble sans limite change radicalement le rapport à l’environnement, aux personnes et même aux objets. Le bateau devient alors une école de vie qui oblige à tout repenser pour agir autrement. La navigation donne vie à une forme de savoir actif : une philosophie de l’océan.

Gabriele Chierchia, Magdaléna Soukupová, Emma J. Kliford, Cait Griffin, Jovita Leung, Stefano Palminteri & Sarah-Jayne Blackemore (2022). Confirmatory reinforcement learning changes with age during adolescence. Developmental Science, (e13330). doi:10.1111/desc.13330

Résumé :
Understanding how learning changes during human development has been one of the long-standing objectives of developmental science. Recently, advances in computational biology have demonstrated that humans display a bias when learning to navigate novel environments through rewards and punishments: they learn more from outcomes that confirm their expectations than from outcomes that disconfirm them. Here, we ask whether confirmatory learning is stable across development, or whether it might be attenuated in developmental stages in which exploration is beneficial, such as in adolescence. In a reinforcement learning (RL) task, 77 participants aged 11–32 years (four men, mean age = 16.26) attempted to maximize monetary rewards by repeatedly sampling different pairs of novel options, which varied in their reward/punishment probabilities. Mixed-effect models showed an age-related increase in accuracy as long as learning contingencies remained stable across trials, but less so when they reversed halfway through the trials. Age was also associated with a greater tendency to stay with an option that had just delivered a reward, more than to switch away from an option that had just delivered a punishment. At the computational level, a confirmation model provided increasingly better fit with age. This model showed that age differences are captured by decreases in noise or exploration, rather than in the magnitude of the confirmation bias. These findings provide new insights into how learning changes during development and could help better tailor learning environments to people of different ages.

Charlotte Caucheteux, Alexandre Gramfort, Jean-Rémi King (2022). Deep language algorithms predict semantic comprehension from brain activity. 12, 16327 (2022). doi:10.1038/s41598-022-20460-9

Résumé :
Deep language algorithms, like GPT-2, have demonstrated remarkable abilities to process text, and now constitute the backbone of automatic translation, summarization and dialogue. However, whether these models encode information that relates to human comprehension still remains controversial. Here, we show that the representations of GPT-2 not only map onto the brain responses to spoken stories, but they also predict the extent to which subjects understand the corresponding narratives. To this end, we analyze 101 subjects recorded with functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging while listening to 70 min of short stories. We then fit a linear mapping model to predict brain activity from GPT-2’s activations. Finally, we show that this mapping reliably correlates (=0.50,𝑝<10−15R=0.50,p<10−15) with subjects’ comprehension scores as assessed for each story. This effect peaks in the angular, medial temporal and supra-marginal gyri, and is best accounted for by the long-distance dependencies generated in the deep layers of GPT-2. Overall, this study shows how deep language models help clarify the brain computations underlying language comprehension.

O. Dogonasheva, Dmitry Kasatkin, Boris Gutkin, and Denis Zakharov (2022). Multistability and evolution of chimera states in a network of type II Morris–Lecar neurons with asymmetrical nonlocal inhibitory connections. Chaos. 32, 101101. doi:10.1063/5.0117845

Résumé :
Formation of synchronous activity patterns is an essential property of neuronal networks that has been of central interest to synchronization theory. Chimera states, where both synchronous and asynchronous activities of neurons co-exist in a single network, are particularly poignant examples of such patterns, whose dynamics and multistability may underlie brain function, such as cognitive tasks. However, dynamical mechanisms of coherent state formation in spiking neuronal networks as well as ways to control these states remain unclear. In this paper, we take a step in this direction by considering the evolution of chimera states in a network of class II excitable Morris–Lecar neurons with asymmetrical nonlocal inhibitory connections. Using the adaptive coherence measure, we are able to partition the network parameter space into regions of various collective behaviors (antiphase synchronous clusters, traveling waves, different types of chimera states as well as a spiking death regime) and have shown multistability between the various regimes. We track the evolution of the chimera states as a function of changed key network parameters and found transitions between various types of chimera states. We further find that the network can demonstrate long transients leading to quasi-persistence of activity patterns in the border regions hinting at near-criticality behaviors.

Léo Fitouchi, Jean-Baptiste André, & Nicolas Baumard (2022). Moral disciplining: The cognitive and evolutionary foundations of puritanical morality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1-71. doi:10.1017/S0140525X22002047

Résumé :
Why do many societies moralize apparently harmless pleasures, such as lust, gluttony, alcohol, drugs, and even music and dance? Why do they erect temperance, asceticism, sobriety, modesty, and piety as cardinal moral virtues? According to existing theories, this puritanical morality cannot be reduced to concerns for harm and fairness: it must emerge from cognitive systems that did not evolve for cooperation (e.g., disgust-based “Purity” concerns). Here, we argue that, despite appearances, puritanical morality is no exception to the cooperative function of moral cognition. It emerges in response to a key feature of cooperation, namely that cooperation is (ultimately) a long-term strategy, requiring (proximately) the self-control of appetites for immediate gratification. Puritanical moralizations condemn behaviors which, although inherently harmless, are perceived as indirectly facilitating uncooperative behaviors, by impairing the self-control required to refrain from cheating. Drinking, drugs, immodest clothing, and unruly music and dance, are condemned as stimulating short-term impulses, thus facilitating uncooperative behaviors (e.g., violence, adultery, free-riding). Overindulgence in harmless bodily pleasures (e.g., masturbation, gluttony) is perceived as making people slave to their urges, thus altering abilities to resist future antisocial temptations. Daily self-discipline, ascetic temperance, and pious ritual observance are perceived as cultivating the self-control required to honor prosocial obligations. We review psychological, historical, and ethnographic evidence supporting this account. We use this theory to explain the fall of puritanism in WEIRD societies, and discuss the cultural evolution of puritanical norms. Explaining puritanical norms does not require adding mechanisms unrelated to cooperation in our models of the moral mind.

Laura Gwilliams, Jean-Rémi King, Alec Marantz, David Poeppel (2022). Neural dynamics of phoneme sequences reveal position-invariant code for content and order. Nat Commun, 13, 6606. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-34326-1

Résumé :
Speech consists of a continuously-varying acoustic signal. Yet human listeners experience it as sequences of discrete speech sounds, which are used to recognise discrete words. To examine how the human brain appropriately sequences the speech signal, we recorded two-hour magnetoencephalograms from 21 participants listening to short narratives. Our analyses show that the brain continuously encodes the three most recently heard speech sounds in parallel, and maintains this information long past its dissipation from the sensory input. Each speech sound representation evolves over time, jointly encoding both its phonetic features and the amount of time elapsed since onset. As a result, this dynamic neural pattern encodes both the relative order and phonetic content of the speech sequence. These representations are active earlier when phonemes are more predictable, and are sustained longer when lexical identity is uncertain. Our results show how phonetic sequences in natural speech are represented at the level of populations of neurons, providing insight into what intermediary representations exist between the sensory input and sub-lexical units. The flexibility in the dynamics of these representations paves the way for further understanding of how such sequences may be used to interface with higher order structure such as lexical identity.

Alexander Martin, Marieke van Heugten, René Kager & Sharon Peperkamp (2022). Marginal contrast in loanword phonology: Production and perception. Laboratory Phonology (13), 1. doi: https://doi.org/10.16995/labphon.6454

Résumé :
Though Dutch is usually described as lacking a voicing contrast at the velar place of articulation, due to intense language contact and heavy lexical borrowing, a contrast between /k/ and /g/ has recently been emerging. We explored the status of this contrast in Dutch speakers in both production and perception. We asked participants to produce loanwords containing a /g/ in the source language (e.g., goal) and found a range of productions, including a great many unadapted [g] tokens. We also tested the same speakers on their perception of the emerging [k] ~ [g] contrast and found that our participants were able to discriminate the emerging contrast well. We additionally explored the possibility that those speakers who use the new contrast more in production are also better at perceiving it, but we did not observe strong evidence of such a link. Overall, our results indicate that the adoption of the new sound is well advanced in the population we tested, but is still modulated by individual-level factors. We hold that contrasts emerging through borrowing, like other phonological contrasts, are subject to perceptual and functional constraints, and that these and other ‘marginal contrasts’ must be considered as full-fledged parts of phonology.

Gloria Origgi (2022). The Social Indicators of the Reputation of an Expert, Social Epistemology, 36:5, 541-549. doi: 10.1080/02691728.2022.2116962

Résumé :
A notion that comes from the toolbox of social sciences, trust has become a mainstream epistemological concept in the last 15 years. The notion of epistemic trust has been distinguished from the notion of moral and social trust, the former involves kinds of inferences about the others that are rationally justifiable. If I trust a scientist about the efficacy of a vaccine against COVID-19, I must have an epistemic justification. I am therefore rationally justified in trusting her because I have an epistemic reason to justify my belief. I will challenge the distinction between epistemic and moral and social trust by pointing to several social indicators that contribute to our trustful attitudes in a reasonable way. Social indicators of reputation, values and moral commitments to values are indispensable strategies to come to trust in a rational way, an attitude that is different from merely believing the truth. I also point out the fragility of trusting experts’ reputations and stress the importance of avoiding biases in trusting other people’s reputations to make our deference to experts more robust.

Joëlle Proust (2022). The Cultural Evolution of Information Seeking. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 22(5), 467-484. doi:10.1163/15685373-12340146

Résumé :
The mechanisms of selection, assimilation and transmission at work in cultural accumulation need to include evaluative processes for detecting informational lacunae and repair mechanisms. Novelty, interest, learnability of alternative concepts and practices need to be permanently monitored at the individual and at the group level. It is proposed that the evaluative mechanisms that control cultural accumulation are themselves subject to cultural evolution. This article outlines a plausible sequence of evolutionary steps from curiosity-based exploration to inquisitive communication and to collective epistemic deliberation. Procedural metacognition, based on affective monitoring, regulates curiosity and early forms of inquisitive communication. Explicit metacognition, based on transmitted concepts, rules and practices regulates collective epistemic deliberation. It successively expands across cultures the epistemic sensitivity to a range of distinct norms such as evidentiality, consistency, explanatory power and consensuality.

Samuel Recht, Ljubica Jovanovic, Pascal Mamassian, Tarryn Balsdon (2022). Confidence at the limits of human nested cognition. Neuroscience of Consciousness, Volume 2022, Issue 1, niac014. doi:10.1093/nc/niac014

Résumé :
Metacognition is the ability to weigh the quality of our own cognition, such as the confidence that our perceptual decisions are correct. Here we ask whether metacognitive performance can itself be evaluated or else metacognition is the ultimate reflective human faculty. Building upon a classic visual perception task, we show that human observers are able to produce nested, above-chance judgements on the quality of their decisions at least up to the fourth order (i.e. meta-meta-meta-cognition). A computational model can account for this nested cognitive ability if evidence has a high-resolution representation, and if there are two kinds of noise, including recursive evidence degradation. The existence of fourth-order sensitivity suggests that the neural mechanisms responsible for second-order metacognition can be flexibly generalized to evaluate any cognitive process, including metacognitive evaluations themselves. We define the theoretical and practical limits of nested cognition and discuss how this approach paves the way for a better understanding of human self-regulation.

Lou Safra, Niels Lettinga, Pierre Jacquet, Coralie Chevallier (2022). Variability in repeated economic games: comparing trust game decisions to other social trust measures. R. Soc. Open Sci. 9: 210213. doi:10.1098/rsos.210213

Résumé :
Economic games are well-established tools that offer a convenient approach to study social behaviour. Although widely used, recent evidence suggests that decisions made in the context of standard economic games are less predictive of real-world behaviour than previously assumed self-reported questionnaires. A possible explanation for this discrepancy is that economic games decisions in the laboratory are more likely to be influenced by the current situation, while questionnaires are specifically designed to measure people's average behaviour across a long period of time. To test this hypothesis, we performed a longitudinal study where 275 respondents played 16 Trust games every two days within a three-week period, and filled out a questionnaire that measures social trust. This study confirmed the instability of our measure of trust behaviour over time and the substantial stability of questionnaire responses. However, we found a significant association between self-reported social trust and participants' average behaviour in the trust game measured across sessions, but also with participants' behaviour measured only in Session 1. Nevertheless, analysis of behavioural changes in the Trust games over time revealed different behavioural profiles, highlighting how economic games and questionnaires can complement each other in the study of social trust.

Catherine Tallon-Baudry (2022). The topological space of subjective experience. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, S1364-6613(22)00219-4. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2022.09.002.

Résumé :
Subjective experiences often feel rich, yet are most often quantified with simple metrics, such as a few levels on a predefined scale. What are the dimensions and topological organization of subjective experience? How do they relate to behavioral output? And how do they map onto the classical cognitive domains?

Alessia Tonelli, Claudia Lunghi and Monica Gori (2022). Moderate physical activity alters the estimation of time, but not space. Front. Psychol., Sec. Perception Science. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1004504

Résumé :
Moderate physical activity can influence cognitive functions and visual cortical activity. However, little is known about the effects of exercise on fundamental perceptual domains, such as spatial and temporal representation. Here we tackled this issue by testing the impact of physical activity on a temporal estimation task in a group of adult volunteers in three different conditions: (1) in a resting condition (baseline), (2) during moderate physical activity (cycling in place – PA), and (3) approximately 15 to 20 min following the physical activity phase, in which participants were seated and returned to a regular heart rate (POST). We show that physical activity specifically impacts time perception, inducing a consistent overestimation for durations in the range of milliseconds. Notably, the effect persisted in the POST session, ruling out the main contribution of either heart rate or cycling rhythmicity. In a control experiment, we found that spatial perception (distance estimation) was unaffected by physical activity, ruling out a major contribution of arousal and fatigue to the observed temporal distortion. We speculate that physical exercise might alter temporal estimation either by up-regulating the dopaminergic system or modulating GABAergic inhibition.

Frédérique de Vignemont (2022). Ten problems of bodily ownership. The Routledge Handbook of Bodily Awareness. Adrian J.T. Alsmith, Matthew R. Longo Eds. Routledge. ISBN 9780429321542

Résumé :
What makes our body unique? The most intuitive answer is that it bears a special relation to the self, and to self-awareness. Yet, although introspectively familiar, it is hard to exactly pinpoint the nature of this specific relationship. Thanks to their privileged relation to our body, bodily experiences seem to afford awareness of our body as being our own, what has been called the sense of bodily ownership. The aim of this chapter is to offer a very brief outline of some of the main questions and puzzles that await those interested in bodily ownership. How to account for the first-personal character of the sense of ownership? Does one actually feel one’s body as one’s own or does one only entertain the thought that it is one’s own body? Is it one and the same thing to experience a body part or the whole body as one’s own? What is the relationship between the sense of ownership and the sense of disownership? Is the sense of ownership a matter of degrees? Is the sense of ownership cognitively penetrable? Can one feel sensations in a limb that does not appear to be one’s own? What is the role of agency for ownership? And which form of agency, exploratory or protective? Does one feel one’s body as one’s own because one is aware of its unique significance for survival or is one aware of its unique significance because one feels it as one’s own?

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